Corruption and Bribery Essay Example

Corruption and Bribery Essay Definitions Bribery is a white neckband offense in which money. a favour or something else of value is promised to. given to. or taken from an person or corporation in an effort to rock his or its positions. sentiments. or determinations. Corruptness – is the usage of public’s delegated power in personal or close standing people involvement in order to acquire personal benefit. Types of Bribery We will write a custom essay sample on Corruption and Bribery specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Corruption and Bribery specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Corruption and Bribery specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Bribery of a Public Official. Any public functionary ( anyone moving in involvements of a state. for illustration president. frailty president. juryman etc. ) who demands. receives. or accepts a payoff in exchange for doing an illegal alteration in his responsibilities will be fined up to three times the value of the inducement and/or imprisoned for no more than 15 old ages. The public functionary may besides be prohibited from keeping any political or authorities office in the United States. Bribery of a Witness. Conversely. anyone who offers a payoff to a informant will be fined and/or imprisoned for up to two old ages. Any informant who demands. receives. or accepts a payoff in exchange for altered testimony faces a mulct of three times the value of the payoff and/or up to 15 old ages in prison. while anyone who bribes a informant faces a all right and/or up to two old ages in prison. Bribery of a Foreign Official. In 1977. The U. S. Congress accepted The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. which made it illegal for an American corporation to corrupt a foreign authorities functionary with money or gifts in hopes of set downing or keeping of import concern contacts. Harmonizing to the act. all publically traded companies must maintain records of all concern transactions—even if the companies do non merchandise internationally—to guarantee that this act is non being violated. However. in the act. there are loopholes of which many U. S. corporations take advantage. For illustration. the act permits grease payments . which are inducements paid—without penalty—to foreign functionaries to assist hasten the completion of paperwork and to guarantee the reception of licences or licenses. Bank Bribery. Harmonizing to the Bank Bribery Amendments Act of 1985. 1 ) the solicitation of an employee. manager. etc. in any capacity in exchange for concern and 2 ) the credence of anything ( including repasts. amusement. and adjustments during travel ) but a legitimate wage. rewards and fees from anyone in connexion with the bank’s concern are prohibited. If any representative of a bank accepts a payoff. he will be fined three times the value of the inducement. or he will be imprisoned for up to thirty old ages. However. if the value of the payoff is less than $ 1. 000. the representative will be fined but sentenced to non more than one twelvemonth in gaol. If a bank functionary is offered a payoff. he must unwrap all information to the bank so that the state of affairs may be addressed suitably. Bribery in Sporting Contests. A featuring functionary who accepts a payoff in exchange for a promise to fix a clean event is guilty of graft and may be punished harmonizing to Torahs of a peculiar state. For illustration. if a referee is convicted of throwing a major featuring event. he will be fined. imprisoned for up to five old ages. or both. Negative effects of graft 1. Bribery corrupts the capitalist economic system. The capitalist system is based on competition in an unfastened and free market. where people tend to purchase the best merchandise at the best monetary value. Bribery corrupts the free-market mechanism by acquiring people to do purchases that do non honor the most efficient manufacturer. 2. Bribery is a sell-out to the rich. In any state of affairs ruled merely by money. the deeper pocket will predominate. If graft were universally practiced. adept testimony. justness in the tribunals. and everything else would be up for sale to the highest bidder. 3. Bribery produces cynicism and a general misgiving of establishments. It destroys people’s trust in the unity of professional services. of authorities and the tribunals. of jurisprudence enforcement. faith. and anything it touches. There is good grounds that societies which allow graft tend to hold societal agitation and possibly revolutions. 4. Bribery treats people as trade goods whose honors can be bought and sold. It therefore tends to degrade the regard we owe to other human existences. Corruption Perceptions Index Since 1995. Transparency International has published an one-year Corruption Perceptions Index ( CPI ) telling the states of the universe harmonizing to the grade to which corruptness is perceived to be among public functionaries and politicians . The organisation defines corruptness as the maltreatment of entrusted power for private gain . The 2003 canvass covered 133 states ; the 2007 study. 180. A higher mark means less ( perceived ) corruptness. The consequences show seven out of every 10 states ( and nine out of every 10 developing states ) with an index of less than 5 points out of 10. Methods and reading Transparency International commissioned Johann Graf Lambsdorff of the University of Passau to bring forth the Corruption Perceptions Index ( CPI ) . The CPI 2005 draws on 16 different polls and studies from 10 independent institutions†¦The establishments who provided informations for the CPI 2005 are: Columbia University. Economist Intelligence Unit. Freedom House. Information International. International Institute for Management Development. Merchant International Group. Political and Economic Risk Consultancy. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. World Economic Forum and World Markets Research Centre. Early CPIs used public sentiment studies. but now merely experts are used. TI requires at least three beginnings to be available in order to rank a state in the CPI. TI writes in their Faq on the CPI that residents’ point of views correlate good with those of experts abroad. In the yesteryear. the experts surveyed in the CPI beginnings were frequently concern people from industrialized states ; the point of view of less developed states was underrepresented. This has changed over clip. giving progressively voice to respondents from emerging market economic systems. As this index is based on polls. the consequences are subjective and corrupt in itself. and less dependable for states with fewer beginnings. Besides. what is lawfully defined ( or perceived ) to be corruptness. differs between legal powers: a political contribution legal in some legal power may be illegal in another ; a affair viewed as acceptable tipping in one state may be viewed as graft in another. In former Soviet provinces. the term corruption itself has become a placeholder for the broader defeat with all alterations since the dissolution of the USSR. In the Arab universe. footings for corruptness had to be invented by advocators every bit late as the 1990s. Statisticss like this are. by nature. imprecise ; statistics from different old ages aren’t needfully comparable. The ICCR itself explains. †¦year-to-year alterations in a country’s mark consequence non merely from a altering perceptual experience of a country’s public presentation but besides from a altering sample and methodological analysis. Each twelvemonth. some beginnings are non updated and must be dropped from the CPI. while new. dependable beginnings are added. With differing respondents and somewhat differing methodological analysiss. a alteration in a country’s mark may besides associate to the fact that different point of views have been collected and different inquiries been asked†¦ despite anti-corruption reform†¦ or recent exposure of corruptness scandals†¦ it is frequently hard to better a CPI mark over a short clip period. such as one or two old ages. The CPI is based on informations from the past three old ages ( for m ore on this. see the inquiry on the beginnings of informations. below ) . This means that a alteration in perceptual experiences of corruptness would merely emerge in the index over longer periods of time . Criticism The Corruption Perceptions Index has drawn increasing unfavorable judgment in the decennary since its launch. taking to name for the index to be abandoned. This unfavorable judgment has been directed at the quality of the Index itself. and the deficiency of actionable penetrations created from a simple state ranking. Because corruptness is will to the full conceal. it is impossible to mensurate straight ; alternatively placeholders for corruptness are used. The CPI uses an eclectic mix of third-party studies to try public perceptual experiences of corruptness through a assortment of inquiries. runing from Do you trust the authorities? to Is corruptness a large job in your state? The usage of third-party study informations is a beginning of unfavorable judgment. The information can change widely in methodological analysis and completeness from state to state. The methodological analysis of the Index itself alterations from twelvemonth to twelvemonth. therefore doing even basic better-or-worse comparings hard. Media mercantile establishments. interim. often use the natural Numberss as a yardstick for authorities public presentation. without clear uping what the Numberss mean. The deficiency of standardisation and preciseness in these studies is cause for concern. The writers of the CPI argue that averaging adequate study informations will work out this ; others argue that aggregating imprecise informations merely masks these defects without turn toing them. In one instance. a local Transparency International chapter disowned the index consequences after a alteration in methodological analysis caused a country’s scores to increase—media reported it as an improvement . Other critics point out that definitional jobs with the term corruption makes the tool problematic for societal scientific discipline. Aside from preciseness issues. a more cardinal review is aimed at the utilizations of the Index. Critics are speedy to profess that the CPI has been instrumental in making consciousness and stimulating argument about corruptness. However. as a beginning of quantitative informations in a field hungry for international datasets. the CPI can take on a life of its ain. looking in cross-country and year-to-year comparings that the CPI writers themselves admit are non justified by their methodological analysis. The writers province in 2008: Year-to-year alterations in a country’s mark can either consequence from a changed perceptual experience of a country’s public presentation or from a alteration in the CPI’s sample and methodological analysis. The lone dependable manner to compare a country’s mark over clip is to travel back to single study beginnings. each of which can reflect a alteration in appraisal. The CPI produces a individual mark per state. which as noted above. can non be compared year-to-year. As such. the Index is about useless as a tool for measuring the impact of new policies. In the late 2000s. the field has moved towards unpackable. action-oriented indices ( such as those by the International Budget Partnership or Global Integrity ) . which typically measure public policies that relate to corruptness. instead than seek to measure corruption as a whole via proxy steps like perceptual experiences. These alternate steps use original ( frequently locally collected ) informations and are limited in range to specific policy patterns ( such as public entree to parliamentary budget paperss ) . Recent Bribery Scandals Siemens Case. twelvemonth 2008. German technology pudding stone Siemens. rocked by the worst graft dirt in the country’s history. won a tribunal inquiring the company for a $ 56 million mulct. Previously. a lower tribunal ordered the company to pay back 1000000s of dollars in net incomes after two former directors pleaded guilty to paying payoffs to win orders from the Italian Enel Group. Now the highest court in Germany. the Federal Court of Justice. instructed a lower tribunal to retry the instance against the former executives. who forwarded $ 8. 9 million to staff of the Italian electricity company in 2000. The tribunal threw out the judgement against Siemens and lifted the graft strong beliefs. The tribunal didn’t challenge that the payments were made. However. before 2002. graft was merely a offense if it harmed competition between German companies. the Judgess said. As no other German company command for the order and Enel was non a authorities bureau. the payments didn’t constitute corruptness at the clip. the Judgess said. Siemens faces probes in the United States and at least a twelve other states over claims its employees used payoffs to win contracts. The company has found $ 1. 9 billion of unclear payments made from 2000 to 2006. Daimler Case. Daimler. the keeping company of Mercedes-Benz autos and commercial vehicles. has agreed to pay a $ 185m mulct in an effort to avoid revelation of alleged payoffs the company paid in 22 states. Amongst the states implicated are Croatia. Latvia. Russia. Hungary. Serbia. Montenegro and Turkey – where good authorities contracts were awarded to Daimler subordinates between 1998 and 2008. In one illustration. it was claimed Daimler gave an armored Mercedes as a birthday gift to an functionary at a clip it was in negotiations to sell about 200 vehicles to the Turkmenistan Government. Possibly the most damnatory statement is that Daimler made payments to functionaries in Iraq under the Oil for Food plan. Hewlett Packard Case. At issue is the sale of some $ 47. 8 million worth of computing machine systems to the office of Russia’s prosecuting officer general. who besides happens to be the 1 that investigates corruptness instances in his state. Talk about a turn of sarcasm if. as studies suggest. HP is found guilty of paying about $ 11 million in bribe money to set down the contract. This is an probe of alleged behavior that occurred about seven old ages ago. mostly by employees no longer with HP. We are collaborating to the full with the German and Russian governments and will go on to carry on our ain internal probe. the HP spokeswoman said via electronic mail on Wednesday. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. telegraph. co. uk/comment/columnists/danroberts/3557215/Bribery-is-bad-for-business. hypertext markup language hypertext transfer protocol: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Bribery hypertext transfer protocol: //www. transparence. org/news_room/in_focus/2008/bpi_2008 hypertext transfer protocol: //blogs. wsj. com/law/2008/08/29/in-germany-bribery-doesnt-always-mean-corruption-siemens-finds/tab/article/ hypertext transfer protocol: //www. delna. lv/lat/page/2220/ hypertext transfer protocol: //www. lawyershop. com/practice-areas/criminal-law/white-collar-crimes/bribery-kickbacks/ hypertext transfer protocol: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index hypertext transfer protocol: //www. wheels24. co. za/News/Industry_News/Huge-bribery-scandal-hits-Daimler-20100324

Overview of the Haber-Bosch Process

Overview of the Haber-Bosch Process The Haber-Bosch process is a process that fixes nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia - a critical part in the manufacture of plant fertilizers. The process was developed in the early 1900s by Fritz Haber and was later modified to become an industrial process to make fertilizers by Carl Bosch. The Haber-Bosch process is considered by many scientists and scholars as one of the most important technological advances of the 20th century. The Haber-Bosch process is extremely important because it was the first of processes developed that allowed people to mass-produce plant fertilizers due to the production of ammonia. It was also one of the first industrial processes developed to use high pressure to create a chemical reaction (Rae-Dupree, 2011). This made it possible for farmers to grow more food, which in turn made it possible for agriculture to support a larger population. Many consider the Haber-Bosch process to be responsible for the Earths current population explosion as approximately half of the protein in todays humans originated with nitrogen fixed through the Haber-Bosch process (Rae-Dupree, 2011). History and Development of the Haber-Bosch Process By the period of industrialization the human population had grown considerably, and as a result, there was a need to increase grain production and agriculture started in new areas like Russia, the Americas and Australia (Morrison, 2001). In order to make crops more productive in these and other areas, farmers began to look for ways to add nitrogen to the soil, and the use of manure and later guano and fossil nitrate grew. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, scientists, mainly chemists, began looking for ways to develop fertilizers by artificially fixing nitrogen the way legumes do in their roots. On July 2, 1909, Fritz Haber produced a continuous flow of liquid ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen gases that were fed into a hot, pressurized iron tube over an osmium metal catalyst (Morrison, 2001). It was the first time anyone was able to develop ammonia in this manner. Later, Carl Bosch, a metallurgist and engineer, worked to perfect this process of ammonia synthesis so that it could be used on a world-wide scale. In 1912, construction of a plant with a commercial production capacity began at Oppau, Germany. The plant was capable of producing a ton of liquid ammonia in five hours and by 1914 the plant was producing 20 tons of usable nitrogen per day (Morrison, 2001). With the start of World War I, production of nitrogen for fertilizers at the plant stopped and manufacturing switched to that of explosives for trench warfare. A second plant later opened in Saxony, Germany to support the war effort. At the end of the war both plants went back to producing fertilizers. How the Haber-Bosch Process Works The process works today much like it originally did by using extremely high pressure to force a chemical reaction. It works by fixing nitrogen from the air with hydrogen from natural gas to produce ammonia (diagram). The process must use high pressure because nitrogen molecules are held together with strong triple bonds. The Haber-Bosch process uses a catalyst or container made of iron or ruthenium with an inside temperature of over 800 F (426 C) and a pressure of around 200 atmospheres to force nitrogen and hydrogen together (Rae-Dupree, 2011). The elements then move out of the catalyst and into industrial reactors where the elements are eventually converted into fluid ammonia (Rae-Dupree, 2011). The fluid ammonia is then used to create fertilizers. Today, chemical fertilizers contribute to about half of the nitrogen put into global agriculture, and this number is higher in developed countries. Population Growth and the Haber-Bosch Process Today, the places with the most demand for these fertilizers are also the places where the worlds population is growing the fastest. Some studies show that about 80 percent of the global increase in consumption of nitrogen fertilizers between 2000 and 2009 came from India and China (Mingle, 2013). Despite the growth in the worlds biggest countries, the large population growth globally since the development of the Haber-Bosch process shows how important it has been to changes in global population. Other Impacts and the Future of the Haber-Bosch Process The current process of nitrogen fixation is also not completely efficient, and a large amount is lost after it is applied to fields due to runoff when it rains and a natural gassing off as it sits in fields. Its creation is also extremely energy-intensive due to the high temperature pressure needed to break nitrogens molecular bonds. Scientists are currently working to develop more efficient ways to complete the process and to create more environmentally-friendly ways support the worlds agriculture and growing population.

Manned mission to Mars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Manned mission to Mars - Essay Example Moon is the natural satellite of earth which is located near to the earth compared to other planets. Only Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were able to land on moon so far even though many other satellites were send to moon for explorations. The access to moon is still not easy for the humans. Under such circumstances manned missions to Mars has made lot of controversies. Some people argue that manned missions to mars are the only way to find more things about our neighboring planets and to explore the possibilities of any life there. Moreover, only manned missions will be able to prove beyond doubt that how useful the external planets for human beings. On the other hand, critics believe that manned missions to mars is a risky topic because of the immense possibilities of danger both on the way and while landing on moon. This paper briefly analyses the arguments in favor and against manned mission to mars Critics of manned mars mission have raised three major questions; a) how to get funding?, b) how to land on Mars safely?, and c) how to ascent from Mars safely? (Heinonen). It is not easy to send manned spacecrafts to mars. Billions of dollars are needed for mars exploration. It is practically difficult for a single country to bear such huge expenses. But somehow if we are bale to manage the expenses for manned mission, the second question is how to land safely on mars. We have less knowledge about the atmosphere and others dangers waiting for us in Mars. Even the landing on moon was not easy for us even though we did succeed once. Many people believe that high energy cosmic rays and other ionizing radiations might be available in Mars. Moreover, mars have low gravity than earth which may cause further problem to the explorers. The third major cause of concern about manned mars mission is the question of how to ascent from mars even if we succeeded in landing safely on mars. On the other hand,